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Illuminati, designation in use from the 15th century, assumed by or applied to various groups of persons who claimed to be unusually enlightened. The word is the plural of the Latin illuminatus (“revealed” or “enlightened”).
Early Illuminati According to adherents, the source of the “light” was viewed as being directly communicated from a higher source or due to a clarified and exalted condition of the human intelligence. To the former class belong the Alumbrados (Spanish: “enlightened”) of Spain. Spanish historian Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo first finds the name about 1492 (in the form aluminados, 1498) but traces them back to a gnostic origin and thinks their views were promoted in Spain through influences from Italy. One of their earliest leaders—indeed, some scholars style her as a “pre-Alumbrado”—was María de Santo Domingo, who came to be known as La Beata de Piedrahita. She was a labourer’s daughter, born in Aldeanueva, south of Salamanca, about 1485. She joined the Dominican order as a teenager and soon achieved renown as a prophet and mystic who could converse directly with Jesus Christ and the Virgin. Ferdinand of Aragon invited her to his court, and he became convinced of the sincerity of her visions. The Dominicans appealed to Pope Julius II for guidance, and a series of trials were convened under the auspices of the Inquisition. Her patrons, which by then included not only Ferdinand but also Francisco Cardenal Jiménez de Cisneros and the duke of Alba, ensured that no decision was taken against her, and she was cleared in 1510.
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St. Ignatius of Loyola, while studying at Salamanca (1527), was brought before an ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the Alumbrados, but he escaped with an admonition. Others were not so fortunate. In 1529 a congregation of unlettered adherents at Toledo was visited with scourging and imprisonment. Greater rigours followed, and for about a century the Alumbrados afforded many victims to the Inquisition, especially at Córdoba.
The movement (under the name of Illuminés) seems to have reached France from Seville in 1623. It attained some prominence in Picardy when joined (1634) by Pierre Guérin, curé of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known as Guerinets, were suppressed in 1635. Another body of Illuminés surfaced in the south of France in 1722 and appears to have lingered till 1794, having affinities with those known contemporaneously as “French Prophets,” an offshoot of the Protestant militant Camisards.
Of a different class were the Rosicrucians, who claimed to have originated in 1422 but achieved public notice in 1537. Their teachings combined something of Egyptian Hermetism, Christian gnosticism, Jewish Kabbala, alchemy, and a variety of other occult beliefs and practices. The earliest extant writing which mentions the Rosicrucian order was the Fama Fraternitatis, first published in 1614 but probably circulated in manuscript form somewhat earlier than this. It recounts the journey of the reputed founder of the movement, Christian Rosenkreuz, to Damascus, Damcar (a legendary hidden city in Arabia), Egypt, and Fès, where he was well received and came into possession of much secret wisdom. He returned finally to Germany, where he chose three others to whom he imparted this wisdom and thus founded the order. Later the number was increased to eight, who separated, each going to a separate country. One of the six articles of agreement they adopted was that the fraternity should remain secret for 100 years. At the end of 120 years the secret burial place and the perfectly preserved body of the founder were discovered by one of the then members of the order, along with certain documents and symbols held in very high esteem by Rosicrucians. The sacred vault was re-covered, the members of the order dispersed, and the location of the vault was lost to history. The Fama ends with an invitation to “some few” to join the fraternity. Among those believed to have been associated with the order were German alchemist Michael Maier, British physician Robert Fludd, and British philosopher and statesman Sir Francis Bacon.
The Bavarian Perhaps the group most closely associated with the name illuminati was a short-lived movement of republican free thought founded on May Day 1776 by Adam Weishaupt, professor of canon law at Ingolstadt and a former Jesuit. The members of this secret society called themselves “Perfectibilists.” Their founder’s aim was to replace Christianity with a religion of reason, as later did the revolutionaries of France and the 19th-century positivist philosopher Auguste Comte. The order was organized along Jesuit lines and kept internal discipline and a system of mutual surveillance based on that model. Its members pledged obedience to their superiors and were divided into three main classes: the first included “novices,” “minervals,” and “lesser illuminati”; the second consisted of freemasons (“ordinary,” “Scottish,” and “Scottish knights”); and the third or “mystery” class comprised two grades of “priest” and “regent” as well as “magus” and “king.”
Beginning with a narrow circle of disciples carefully selected from among his own students, Weishaupt gradually extended his recruitment efforts from Ingolstadt to Eichstätt, Freising, Munich, and elsewhere, with special attention being given to the enlistment of young men of wealth, rank, and social importance. From 1778 onward Weishaupt’s illuminati began to make contact with various Masonic lodges, where, under the impulse of Adolf Franz Friedrich, Freiherr von Knigge, one of their chief converts, they often managed to gain a commanding position, It was to Knigge that the society was indebted for the extremely elaborate constitution (never, however, actually realized) as well as its internal communication system. Each member of the order had given him a special name, generally classical, by which he alone was addressed in official writing (Weishaupt was referred to as Spartacus while Knigge was Philo). All internal correspondence was conducted in cipher, and to increase the mystification, towns and provinces were invested with new and altogether arbitrary designations. At its period of greatest development, Weishaupt’s “Bavarian Illuminati” included in its operations a very wide area, extending from Italy to Denmark and from Warsaw to Paris; at no time, however, do its numbers appear to have exceeded 2,000. The order and its doctrines appealed to literary giants such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Gottfried von Herder as well as the dukes Ernest II of Gotha and Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Such notables were claimed as members although it is questionable if they were actually so. Weishaupt’s illuminati were believed to have included astronomer Johann Bode, writer and bookseller Friedrich Nicolai, philosopher Friedrich Jacobi, and poet Friedrich Leopold, Graf zu Stolberg-Stolberg.
Secret societies of this kind fitted in with the idea of benevolent despotism as a vehicle for the Enlightenment, as Goethe shows in Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship. The movement suffered from internal dissension and was ultimately banned by an edict of the Bavarian government in 1785. Some members were imprisoned, while others were driven from their homes. Weishaupt was stripped of his chair at Ingolstadt and banished from Bavaria. After 1785 the historical record contains no further activities of Weishaupt’s illuminati, but the order figured prominently in conspiracy theories for centuries after its disbanding. It was credited with activities ranging from the instigation of the French Revolution to the assassination of U.S. Pres. John F. Kennedy, and the notion of an all-knowing cabal of ancient masters remained a powerful image in the popular consciousness into the 21st century.
*Later Illuminati*After the suppression of Weishaupt’s order, the title illuminati was given to the French Martinists, founded in 1754 by Martinez Pasqualis and propagated by Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin. By 1790 Martinism had been spread to Russia by Johann Georg Schwarz and Nikolay Novikov. Both strains of “illuminated” Martinism included elements of Kabbalism and Christian mysticism, imbibing ideas from Jakob Böhme and Emanuel Swedenborg. Nonprofit organization, also called (in the United States) not-for-profit organization, an organization, typically dedicated to pursuing mission-oriented goals through the collective actions of citizens, that is not formed and organized so as to generate a profit. In the United States a nonprofit organization is legally delineated from firms in the for-profit sector by its tax-exempt status. Outside the United States, the legal framework defining the government, business, and nonprofit sectors can be less distinct, depending on the country. International nonprofit organizations are often referred to as nongovernmental organizations, although that term may also include for-profit entities. Nonprofit organizations participate in a large array of activities, from education to poverty relief and music to political advocacy. They grew tremendously in number and in resources throughout the world in the latter half of the 20th century. The term third sector has also been used to describe nonprofit and nongovernmental organizations.
Nonprofit Organizations And Civic Participation The nonprofit sector provides many opportunities for civic participation. Examples range from groups centred on a pastime, such as a local choral group, to advocacy organizations centred on health, environmental, or other policy issues. Demographic groups that are disenfranchised, such as ethnic minorities, can form nonprofit organizations and develop a collective voice in the polity that is stronger than their voice in traditional representative governments. Individuals can develop leadership skills within the realm of the nonprofit sector and then transition to active participation in decision making in their community. Public participation in nonprofit organizations is limited in some organizations where funding is largely from commercial sources (for example, hospitals). Other organizations involve the public mainly through payment of an annual membership fee. In contrast, many nonprofit organizations depend heavily on volunteer labour and extensive involvement of community members to carry out mission-related programs.
Despite creating opportunities for enhanced civic participation, a strong nonprofit sector can dilute the mandate of the voting public in several ways. First, nonprofit organizations are run not by elected officials but by community members who have the time and wherewithal to devote themselves to the cause—which often means the community elite. Second, as government agencies contract out their services to be produced by nonprofit organizations, those services are produced by organizations with multiple stakeholders, including board members, staff, and donors. The clarity of command, from the taxpaying and voting public down to the direct service provider, becomes less distinct. Rules or norms that are clear and unquestioned at the government level, such as the separation of church and state (or in another country, the unified church-state), can be modified to accommodate differing points of view when the government funds a nonprofit organization to produce a service. Finally, an external funder, such as an overseas foundation, can finance activities that the home government either cannot afford to produce or may not want to produce.
*Nonprofit Organizational Structure*Decision making in nonprofit organizations may be complex because of the multitude of stakeholders involved in organizations. A board of directors convenes at regular intervals to review the finances of the organization and to provide administrative guidance for the organization’s staff. In smaller organizations, the administrative role of directors, other volunteers, and paid staff is blurred as volunteers perform substantial administrative tasks. Indirectly, funders also participate in decision making as nonprofit organizations work with foundations, governments, and individuals to define future programs that both fit the organization’s intended purpose and attract revenue.
Growth Of The Nonprofit SectorSince colonial days in the United States, citizens have actively participated in voluntary associations, and the roots of the American nonprofit sector extend back to that preference for association outside the purview of the government. Colonial leaders expressed distrust of the potential power of voluntary association leaders to sway public opinion. Distrust of nonprofit organizations has surfaced repeatedly throughout history as lawmakers sought to limit political advocacy and other activities of foundations and other nonprofit organizations. On the other hand, governments have turned to nonprofit organizations, especially since the 1980s, to deliver a vast array of public services that were once provided by public agencies.
Nongovernmental organizations have expanded in influence worldwide. Particularly in developing nations, nongovernmental organizations have developed their capacity since the 1990s to work in partnership with home governments to alleviate poverty and other pressing problems. International human rights organizations have also gained stature—for example, working with the United Nations in addressing international human rights violations. It is their presumed lack of country-specific bias that gives their voice credibility in the international policy arena. With their increased preference for market-oriented enterprise, governments have relinquished much of their service-provision role in favour of managing networks of subcontractors, including both for-profit and nonprofit firms. Some forms of subcontracting benefit nonprofit firms directly, such as a hunger-relief organization carrying out a government-funded contract. Other forms of subcontracting benefit nonprofit agencies indirectly by providing demand-side subsidies to consumers, who may choose nonprofit agencies to provide the service. A prominent example of a demand-side subsidy is Medicare and Medicaid payments for health care in the United States.
The tremendous increase in health and human service sector payments to the nonprofit sector, one should note, paints a picture of a sector that has rapidly transformed since the 1990s from reliance on donations to reliance on commercial fees. However, outside the health and human service sectors, nonprofit organizations are still strongly dependent on donations from individuals, not commercial revenues. In the second half of the 20th century, nonprofit organizations that relied heavily on donated revenues increasingly turned to high-wealth individuals for major gifts, in comparison to broad-based funding mechanisms seen in previous decades (such as the March of Dimes campaign to end polio). In theory, if a greater proportion of donations come from high-wealth individuals, then decision making in those nonprofit organizations will be more influenced by high-wealth donors than by the rest of the organizations’ members and stakeholders.
Fraternity and sorority, in the United States, social, professional, or honorary societies, for males and females, respectively. Most such organizations draw their membership primarily from college or university students. With few exceptions, fraternities and sororities use combinations of letters of the Greek alphabet as names. The basic function of the social fraternity is to serve as a collegiate “home” and dormitory for its members, but the emphasis varies from school to school. At some universities Greek-letter societies are the nucleus of campus political and social life, while at others fraternities and sororities are barely tolerated or barred altogether. During the student unrest of the late 1960s, criticism of such societies was especially widespread, and many were forced to close for lack of pledges. More recently, however, with the rising cost of university education, fraternities and sororities have returned to favour because they are able through communal living to keep the cost of room and board at a minimum.
The membership of professional fraternities is limited to students and faculty members engaged in a particular field of specialization. Membership qualifications are broader than for the social groups and emphasize activities designed to develop professional competency rather than social life. The first professional fraternity, Kappa Lambda, was founded in 1819 for medical students.
Perhaps the leading honorary society today is Phi Beta Kappa, which began as a social fraternity at William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Va., in 1776. Membership is now based on general scholarship and is open to both men and women. The oldest social fraternity still in existence as such is Kappa Alpha, begun in 1825 at Union College, Schenectady, N.Y.
Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov, (born April 27 [May 8, New Style], 1744, Bronnitsky, near Moscow, Russia—died July 31 [August 12], 1818, Bronnitsky), Russian writer, philanthropist, and Freemason whose activities were intended to raise the educational and cultural level of the Russian people and included the production of social satires as well as the founding of schools and libraries. Influenced by Freemasonry, Novikov converted his journals and his ambitious publishing enterprise into vehicles of freethinking and even criticized Empress Catherine II the Great. She suspended publication of his journals and had him arrested in 1792. He was released by Emperor Paul in 1796 but was forbidden to resume his journalistic activities.
Cooperative, organization owned by and operated for the benefit of those using its services. Cooperatives have been successful in a number of fields, including the processing and marketing of farm products, the purchasing of other kinds of equipment and raw materials, and in the wholesaling, retailing, electric power, credit and banking, and housing industries. The income from a retail cooperative is usually returned to the consumers in the form of dividends based on the amounts purchased over a given period of time. Modern consumer cooperatives, usually called co-ops in the United States, are thought to have begun in Great Britain in 1844, with the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society The society created a set of organizational and working rules that have been widely adopted. They included open membership, democratic control, no religious or political discrimination, sales at prevailing market prices, and the setting aside of some earnings for education. The cooperative movement developed rapidly in the latter part of the 19th century, particularly in the industrial and mining areas of northern England and Scotland. It spread quickly among the urban working class in Britain, France, Germany, and Sweden and among the rural population of Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Finland. In the United States, attempts at consumer and agricultural marketing cooperatives were made at the beginning of the 19th century. Although most U.S. cooperatives developed in rural areas, consumer and housing cooperatives spread substantially in metropolitan areas in the late 20th century. Cooperatives were introduced in Latin America by European immigrants in the early 1900s; later they were often fostered by state action in connection with agrarian reform. Marketing and credit cooperatives have been important in many African nations, especially since World War II. During the Soviet era, marketing cooperatives of the U.S.S.R. and eastern Europe functioned as part of a centrally controlled purchasing network for farm produce. Cooperative farms in those countries were modeled on the Russian artel, in which all land was pooled and worked in common and income was distributed according to work performed. Compare credit union.
Advocacy network, organization consisting of independent groups that collaborate in the pursuit of political change. Advocacy networks are made up primarily of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) but may also include individuals or groups from the public or private sector, foundations, academia, and the media. Nationally, regionally, and internationally, advocacy networks focus on the mobilization, interpretation, and strategic dissemination of information to change the behaviour of governments, private firms, or international organizations. Advocacy networks share many of the characteristics of social movements, but the latter are generally less institutionalized and more likely to use disruptive tactics. Although advocacy networks have long been an important force in domestic governance, they expanded rapidly across international borders starting in the 1990s. In both domains, advocacy networks have become effective drivers of social and political change.
Unlike governments and firms, advocacy networks generally have limited access to traditional sources of power. Instead, advocacy networks rely on the strength of information, membership numbers, organizational structure and leadership, and symbolic power. Their organizational form is characterized by voluntary, reciprocal, and horizontal patterns of collaboration, which allows for flexibility, adaptability, and quick reaction to political exigencies; the advent of social networking media has significantly increased the speed and effectiveness of organization. Yet, advocacy networks remain more likely to emerge where personal and working relationships among key individuals and leaders already exist. The most important assets at the disposal of advocacy networks are information and communication. Information is deployed to change actors’ perceptions and preferences and ultimately their behaviours. Information is invariably a critical component of conventional and unconventional campaign tactics, including education and capacity building, public relations, petitions, lobbying, and product or producer boycotts. Advocacy networks use information in three different ways. First, they generate and disseminate new or different information to change the underlying logic of a policy issue. Such information may revise the evaluation of an existing policy, increase the cost of an undesirable policy option, or change the public view of a key actor. Second, information can draw attention to new issues or reframe existing issues in ways that resonate with a greater audience; this often involves the creative use of symbols, performances, and narratives. Third, advocacy networks use information to enlist the support of allies that individual network members could not leverage on their own. The success and tactics of advocacy networks depend significantly on the system of governance in which they operate. The nature of state-society relations (accommodation or repression), extent of direct democratic institutions (initiative, referendum, and recall), electoral system (majority or proportional), openness of policy-making processes, and access to political leaders significantly affect outcomes of advocacy network efforts. When advocacy networks meet obstacles at the domestic level, they may expand their efforts to the regional or international level.
City mission, also called rescue mission, Christian religious organization established to provide spiritual, physical, and social assistance to the poor and needy. It originated in the city mission movement among evangelical laymen and ministers early in the 19th century. The work of city missions resembles that of settlement houses, institutional churches, and charitable societies, but city missions usually also emphasize religious conversion through evangelistic preaching services. In Great Britain the Glasgow City Mission (1826) and the London City Mission (1835) both sought to evangelize and rehabilitate the urban poor. Beginning with home visitation and tract distribution by volunteer lay missionaries, the city mission movement expanded into Sunday school, day school, and temperance activities with paid missionaries; and eventually it provided food, lodging, employment, and medical care for the destitute and sick. After 1865 the work of William Booth and the Salvation Army brought a new impetus to city mission work in both Great Britain and the United States.
In Germany, Johann Hinrich Wichern, a Lutheran pastor and teacher, founded a rescue village near Hamburg for delinquent boys in 1833. At a Kirchentag (church rally) of the German Evangelical Church in Wittenberg in 1848, Wichern urged that the church minister to the physical and social needs as well as the spiritual needs of people. As a result, the Central Committee for the Inner Mission was formed in 1849, and Inner Mission societies were formed in Germany’s large cities and in the territorial churches. In the United States the New York City Mission and Tract Society began home visitations in the 1830s and founded its first mission station in 1852. The movement flourished in the late 19th century and was established in other countries in Europe, including France, the Netherlands, the Scandinavian countries, and Poland. Most city missions have been founded and supported denominationally or interdenominationally, but some of the most successful have been nondenominational.
Neighbourhood association, also called community association, organized group whose aim is to address local issues, such as education reform, crime, or homelessness, to promote or prevent planned reforms and investments that are perceived as significantly influencing life in a neighbourhood or local community. Neighbourhood associations strengthen the link between residents and policy makers. They mobilize residents into political activism and create opportunities for direct communication within the local community and between the local residents and local officials. Unlike professional, lifestyle, or interest-focused associations that group individuals by their occupational characteristics or similar lifestyle or interests, neighbourhood associations group individuals that share concern for the good of the local community.
Research shows that while citizens’ participation in most types of voluntary organizations is beneficial for the quality of democratic government, neighbourhood associations have a particularly positive influence on the functioning of political and economic institutions. Neighbourhood associations act as “schools of democracy,” in which citizens are socialized into activism and political participation. They facilitate communication between various local actors and institutions and stimulate articulation of citizens’ interests and expectations. They contribute to the emergence of the sense of community among local residents. They increase individuals’ and communities’ civic capacity. As a result, neighbourhood associations contribute to the empowerment of neighbourhood communities and lay the groundwork for local and national policy efforts. Individuals with larger resources (such as skills and money) are more likely to join voluntary associations, but research shows that neighbourhood associations that have more resources are less active than less-affluent associations. However, that may be due to the fact that they operate in wealthier areas facing fewer social problems, thus requiring less action on their part. It may also be a result of replacing a needs-driven approach, focusing on the problems of a local community, with an asset-based approach that concentrates on utilizing the strengths of even deprived communities and thus on transforming “clients into citizens.” The late 20th century brought a widespread concern about the loss of community in modern Western societies. Anonymity of urban environments, technological advances, and increased mobility are among the main factors blamed for the erosion of formal and informal networks among local residents. Therefore, in attempts to create opportunities for the emergence and development of neighbourhood initiatives, governmental and nongovernmental agencies promote policies aimed at improving the quality of life in local communities and strengthening citizens’ links with their neighbourhoods.
Natalia LetkiLEARN MORE in these related Britannica articles:voting in the 2012 U.S. presidential electiondemocracyDemocracy, literally, rule by the people. The term is derived from the Greek dēmokratiā,...…United Nations General AssemblyUnited NationsUnited Nations (UN), international organization established on October 24, 1945. The United Nations (UN)...…Karl MarxSocial structureSocial structure, in sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby human beings...…newsletter iconHISTORY AT YOUR FINGERTIPSSign up here to see what happened On This Day, every day in your inbox!Email addressEmail addressBy signing up, you agree to our Privacy Notice.ArticleAdditional InfoHomeLifestyles & Social IssuesSociology & SocietyNationmedieval university group WRITTEN BYThe Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaEncyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....See Article HistoryNation, in medieval education, the basic organizational form of early European universities. A nation was formed when groups of students from a particular region or country banded together for mutual protection and welfare in a strange land. In some universities nations were responsible for educating and examining students. Each one was governed by its own proctor, who was elected for terms varying from one month (at the University of Paris) to a year (University of Bologna). Through participation in elections and meetings, the students—many of whom later served on committees and councils of kings and princes—were exposed to the practical workings of constitutional government.
At Bologna, the original site of the division into nations and the model for this development in other universities, there were four large nations: the three Italian nations—Lombard, Tuscan, and Roman—and the Ultramontane, which included French, German, and English. Each nation was subdivided into smaller provinces to represent students in university assemblies. Nations were succeeded by studia generalia (“universal study places,” or gathering places for scholars), which became permanent university locations in the late 14th and 15th century.
Academy, a society of learned individuals organized to advance art, science, literature, music, or some other cultural or intellectual area of endeavour. From its original reference in Greek to the philosophical school of Plato, the word has come to refer much more generally to an institution of learning or a group of learned persons. At the close of the Middle Ages, academies began to be formed in Italy, for the study first of classical and then of Italian literature. One of the earliest was the Platonic Academy, founded in Florence in 1442 by two Greek scholars with the encouragement of Cosimo de’ Medici. Literary academies sprang up throughout Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries; the most famous of these was the Crusca Academy, founded in Florence by A.F. Grazzini in 1582.
The French Academy, which would become Europe’s best-known literary academy, began in 1635. The Royal Spanish Academy was founded in 1713 to preserve the Spanish language, and it published a landmark Spanish dictionary for that purpose. Academies of science began to appear in the 16th century, and academies of fine arts, music, social sciences, medicine, mining, and agriculture were formed from the 18th century on. More than 50 countries now have at least one academy or learned society that is sanctioned by the state and represented on international councils of learned societies. The influence of the academies was greatest during the 17th and 18th centuries but declined during the 19th, in part because academies tended to resist new and unorthodox developments in science and culture. The United States, like Great Britain, Canada, and other English-speaking countries, has no state-established academies of science or literature—a fact reflective of English beliefs that culture should basically be a matter for private initiative. The first learned society in what would become the United States was founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1743 and was called the American Philosophical Society. The rival American Academy of Arts and Sciences was founded in 1779, and the National Academy of Sciences was founded in Washington, D.C., in 1863. Russia’s Imperial Academy of Sciences was founded by Peter the Great in St. Petersburg in 1724 and renamed the Academy of Sciences in 1925. Academies and learned societies also followed European expansion elsewhere in the world. The Academies of Languages of Colombia (1871) and Venezuela (1873) provided affiliated institutions for the Royal Spanish Academy. More recently, state-sponsored societies were founded to promote the advancement of Western learning for national unity and development. The Japan Academy traces its roots back to the Tokyo Academy founded in 1879. The Chinese Academy of Sciences (Academica Sinica) was founded in 1928 to coordinate research in all fields. India’s National Science Academy was established as the National Institute of Sciences in 1935, and the National Academy of Letters (Sahitya Akademi) was founded in 1952. International councils of learned sciences that are now sponsored by UNESCO are the International Council for Philosophic and Humanistic Studies (1919), the International Council of Scientific Unions (1919), and the International Social Sciences Council (1951).
The term academy is also used to designate special secondary schools (often private and demanding in terms of entrance requirements) or colleges in which specific subjects are emphasized—e.g., military or naval affairs, agriculture, fine arts, music, or business. See also preparatory school.
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